Boethius' 28 Discussion Points Guidelines

Regarding the 28 Discussion Points Guideline of Boethius, the title of 28 alone is not enough to get the point across, so I will explain it with a set of examples.

The following is a sample list of the main "topics" in Boethius' De Topicis Differentiis. The numbering and nomenclature may vary among the sources and translations, but here is a representative list of 28 items. A summary of each item and a brief example is given below.

Issues from Definition

• Abstract: The discussion is based on the essential definition of the subject.
• Example: "A triangle is a polygon with three angles. Therefore, a figure with four angles cannot be a triangle."

Issues from Genus

• Abstract: An argument is constructed from the characteristics of a large group (class) to which a concept belongs.
• Example: "Man belongs to the animals. Since animals are mortal, humans are also mortal."

Issues from Species

• Abstract: Draw conclusions from the characteristics of a species (a more restrictive category).
• E.g., "Dogs are a type of mammal, and since mammals give birth to pups and raise them with milk, dogs give birth to pups and raise them with milk."
  • ? Looks like the same argument from Genus[nishio.icon]
  • o1 say they are not wrong.
    • Both are similar in structure in that they are applied from a higher level category to a lower level object, but the original intent of the classification was to consider separately "which level of characteristics to focus on as arguments (broad commonality or narrow group-specific characteristics)".

Issues from the Whole

• Abstract: Examines whether the properties of the "whole" extend to its "parts" or not.
• Example: "A car consists of an engine and tires. If the entire car is out of order, chances are good that one of its parts is also out of order."

Issues from Parts

• Abstract: Drawing conclusions about the "whole" based on characteristics of the "parts" or conversely drawing analogies from the parts.
• E.g., "If the branches and leaves on this tree are dying, then the overall health of the tree must be poor as well."

Issues from Property

• Abstract: The discussion will be based on the characteristics and attributes (not necessarily definitions, but almost essential characteristics) that are inherent to the subject.
• Example: "Humans are capable of laughter. Laughing is a trait not often seen in other animals."

Issues from Opposites

• Summary: Supports claims by comparing opposite concepts (e.g., day and night, good and evil).
• Example: "Good can be said to be the absence of evil. Therefore, any act in which evil is not found is close to good."

Issues from Similarity

• Abstract: Using similarity relations, one concludes on the basis of the similarity of one event to another.
• Example: "Both countries and companies need to manage their organizations. If companies are getting results with personnel evaluations, the country could do well by implementing a similar system."

Issues from Difference

• Abstract: In contrast to similarities, we now conclude by focusing on differences.
• For example: "The state and corporations have different goals in pursuit of profit. Therefore, it is dangerous to apply corporate logic directly to the state."

Issues from Comparisons (Large/Small, Superior/Inferior)

• Description: Reinforces claims with comparisons such as "greater than," "less than," "superior to," and "inferior to" as material.
• E.g., "If a less expensive product had equal quality, that product would be chosen."

Issues from Cause

• Abstract: Show the cause and derive the effect.
• E.g., "Air pollution is getting worse (as a result) because of increased factory smoke emissions (as a cause)."

Issues from Effect

• Abstract: Infer the cause or situation from the results already observed.
• Example: "A lot of fish are dying in the river (result). Probably some chemical spill upstream (probable cause)."

Issues from the Purpose (Final Cause)

• Summary: Derive claims from the purpose or intent of an action or being.
• Example: "The objective of this project is to increase sales. Then tasks that do not contribute directly to sales should be given lower priority."

Issues from Material Cause

• Abstract: The discussion is developed from material components (materials).
• E.g., "This desk is made of wood and may be susceptible to moisture and mold."

Issues from Formal Cause

• Abstract: The basis is the characteristics brought about by "form" such as shape and structure.
• E.g., "The donut shape has a cavity in the center, making it easier to heat evenly with less uneven frying."

Issues from Subject and Adjuncts

• Abstract: A conclusion is drawn from the relationship between a "subject" and its associated "attributes".
• E.g.: "In the subject of 'smart people,' the attribute of cleverness is important. If they are smart, they will be better suited to solve problems."

Issues from Correlative Terms

• Abstract: The discussion is based on the interrelationship between two associated concepts, such as parent-child and master-disciple.
• E.g.: "If teachers teach seriously, students will change their attitude toward learning. And vice versa."

Issues from Contraries

• Description: Opposes diametrically opposed/conflicting concepts (good and evil, pleasure and pain, etc.) while emphasizing the truth of one side.
• E.g., "The act of trying to avoid suffering is at the same time an act of seeking pleasure."

Issues from Authority

• Abstract: Opinions of authorities/experts and classical authorities are quoted to reinforce the argument.
• E.g., "The method is recommended by a researcher recognized by an international society, so it must be reliable."

Issues from Induction

• Abstract: General conclusions are drawn from the accumulation of individual cases.
• E.g.: "Ten consecutive cases of no adverse reactions to this vaccine. We can assume it is safe for many subjects."

Arguments from Deduction

• Abstract: Argues individual cases from general laws and principles.
• Example: "All metals conduct electricity. Copper is a metal. Therefore, copper conducts electricity."

Issues from Division

• Description: Organize the focus of discussion and draw conclusions by dividing and categorizing.
• E.g., "Dividing work tasks into urgency and importance helps clarify which tasks should be prioritized."

Issues from Enumeration

• Summary: List all the possibilities/elements and select a conclusion from them.
• Example: "There are only three possible causes: a, b, and c. If none of those apply, then there must be an unknown factor."

Etymology / Conjugates

• Abstract: Inference is made from the origin of words and the meanings of word variations and related words.
• For example: "'Philosophy' is derived from the Greek word 'sophia,' which means to love. Thus, it has the essence of the study of the love of wisdom."

Issues from Place

• Abstract: Used when geographic, physical, or spatial context affects the issue.
• Example: "Building by the sea is prone to rust due to sea breezes. Strength measures are needed more than in inland areas."

Issues from Time

• Abstract: The argument is framed with reference to temporal context (past, present, and future).
• E.g., "Companies that have weathered economic crises in the past may be more resilient to the current downturn because of their experience."

Issues from Persons

• Summary: Strengthens or questions the argument based on the character, position, and background of the speaker/parties.
• E.g.: "This opinion is expressed by a sponsor who is an interested party. Neutrality requires caution."

Issues from Usage / Custom

• Abstract: Reinforces the argument on the basis of social conventions and common usage/concepts.
• E.g., "Telecommuting is now becoming the standard way of working, given that many companies have adopted telework."

summary Boethius' "28 Argument Guidelines" can be considered a list of "sections" or "points of view" for constructing arguments and arguments. By using different definitions, causes and effects, and other cut-off points, it is possible to develop a multifaceted and persuasive argument. Even in short examples, it is easier to understand how to construct an argument if you are aware of which topic you are using to construct your argument.

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